Careers. Regression estimates and standard errors across groups from Figure 4. J. Finally, our four cognitive latent variables accounted for 96.1% of the variance in language ability in the TD group and 93.0% of the variance in the DLD group. A narrative retell task followed the recall task. Cogn. Information processing by school-age children with specific language impairment: evidence from a modality effect paradigm. Correlation matrices for the observed measures for the two groups combined are provided in Table 2. Gillam, R. B., Gillam, S. L., Holbrook, S., and Orellana, C. (2017). There were moderate to moderately large group differences for the Fluid Reasoning latent variable and the CATT latent variable. Table 1. Because language comprehension and expression usually involve sentences and strings of connected sentences, individuals must be able to package these strings into fewer, but larger and more coherent/integrated strings or chunks.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Children needed to attend to the pictures and mentally represent the pattern, then shift their attention back and forth from the examiners model to the answer materials to select a card that fit the pattern. 43, 499527. Psychol. Despite our knowledge about the range of cognitive processing limitations experienced by children with DLD, we know very little about the covariance structure or interrelatedness of their various cognitive and linguistic abilities or which cognitive processes are integral to language. Measurement of socioeconomic status in health disparities research. Next, Ohta et al. Recall that the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) by Leonard et al. Finally, when we employed the multiple group approach to our best-fitting model (Model 1), the fit indices were slightly better than those for the two groups combined [AIC = 21795.80; 2(180) = 254.26, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.059; CFI = 0.950; TLI = 0.942; SRMR = 0.063]. Nagels et al. (2015) gave working memory, procedural LTM, declarative LTM, and receptive grammar tasks to 45 children with DLD and 46 TD children between the ages of 8 and 14 years (M = 9;10). The dependent variable was total number of trials correct. Hear. What can be inferred about their interactions and functions in language and cognition? A multicomponent model of working memory, in Working Memory: State of the Science, eds R. H. Logie, V. Camos, and N. Cowan (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1043. A five-factor model that included the latent variables of Fluid Intelligence, CATT, WM, Language Knowledge in LTM, and Language Ability fit the data significantly better than either of two nested, four-factor models in which LTM-LK was dropped and the two LTM-LK measures were integrated into either WM or language ability latent variables. Is language just a communication device, or is it fundamental in developing thoughts? 72, 116141. Hear. Apart from research in experimental and developmental psychology, Language and Cognitive Processes publishes work derived from linguistics, philosophy, cognitive neuropsychology and computational modelling. Next, we imposed successive restrictions on the best fitting CFA model to determine whether there were equivalent patterns of fixed and free factor loadings across the two groups. In comparison to the Leonard et al. We end the volume with a highly-popular discussion on the role of open access publications in linguistics, contributed by Haspelmath (2013) and Bragazzi (2013). The study was approved by the Internal Review Boards at four research universities, and the parents of all participants signed consent forms allowing their participation. Los Angeles, CA: Muthn & Muthn. 29, 336360. doi: 10.1044/0161-1461.2202.66, Leonard, L. B. The largest difference in parameters between groups was the effect of WM on language. doi: 10.1177/1745691616650647, Shipstead, Z., Lindsey, D. R., Marshall, R. L., and Engle, R. W. (2014). Their participants were a subset of the children from a large epidemiological study by Tomblin et al. Cereb. 99, 10131023. The two McDonalds measures represented language knowledge in LTM because story recall and retelling are known to draw heavily on associative frameworks in episodic memory that are built up from prior experience listening to and telling stories (Bower, 2008; Anderson and Lebiere, 2014); the recall and retelling tasks required participants to retain information over a fairly long period of time (as opposed the immediate recall tasks we selected for assessing WM); and performance on both tasks benefited from the use of episodic encoding operations that integrate knowledge from semantic and syntactic language systems into multilevel representations. (2017). doi: 10.1044/jslhr.4105.1136, Dollaghan, C. A. 52, 671680. The auditory stimuli were letters (A-E) and numbers (15) generated from digitally created recordings using the AT&T speech generator. journal self-citations removed) received by a journal's published documents during the three previous years. Acheson, D., and MacDonald, M. (2009). doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2008/002), Steiger, J. A formal hypothesis test of the effect of WM on language ability yielded a significant group difference at the 0.05 level, 2(2) = 7.47, p = 0.024. Res. Res. Assoc. This is an important question because it has implications for understanding the nature of language disorders, and it can inform language assessment and intervention procedures. The fact that our model was invariant across the groups revealed the crucial importance of memory (WM, LK-LTM) to all childrens language performance. This study was funded by Grant R01 DC010883 from the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. What is the role of language and cognition in thinking? doi: 10.1016/0749-596X(90)90004-J, Gathercole, S. E., and Baddeley, A. D. (2014). The complexities of complex memory span: storage and processing deficits in specific language impairment. A second strength is that our groups were propensity matched on age, gender, and SES to control the potential effects of these variables. government site. Previously, researchers used the term specific language impairment (SLI) to refer to children with deficits that were specific to the language system (Adani et al., 2014). Verbal working memory and language production: common approaches to the serial ordering of verbal information. doi: 10.1037/a0024350, Spaulding, T., Plante, E., and Vance, R. (2008). Evolution of the number of published documents. doi: 10.1111/1460-6984.12335, Bishop, D. V. M., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A., Greenhalgh, T., and Catalise consortium. An examination of verbal working memory capacity in children with specific language impairment. Disord. about navigating our updated article layout. Namely, language is involved in both reciprocal and recursive information exchange with each element of the mind. The figure-ground subtest of the Leiter-R (Roid and Miller, 1997) served as an index of childrens ability to recognize and use holistic patterns in the service of solving a visual problem that involved identifying figures or designs that were embedded within complex stimuli. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Figure 4. In addition, the five-factor model fit significantly better when parameters were allowed to differ across the two groups. Examining the standardized estimates, in the TD group, two people who are one standard deviation apart on WM are expected to be 0.839 standard deviations apart on language ability (t = 4.12, p < 0.001), whereas in the DLD group, two people who are one standard deviation apart on WM are expected to be only 0.067 standard deviations apart on language ability (t = 0.314, p = 0.753). New York, NY: Guilford. As noted in the introduction, language plays a role in most measures of WM and LTM. If we had tested for measurement invariance, we expect that we would not find it, given that the groups were specifically constructed to differentiate between language ability. Hear Res. Cowan, N. (1995). J. Lang. Our propensity matching procedure thus granted us a degree of confidence in the adequacy and applicability of our model for characterizing group differences in the relationships among cognition and language performance in school-age children, regardless of their sex and SES background. Speech Lang. These results are consistent with a broad conceptualization of the nature of language impairment, especially in older, school-age children, as encompassing a dynamic system that involves both cognitive and linguistic deficits. Internal consistency reliability, as reported in the test manual, was 0.87. The mechanisms of working memory capacity: primary memory, secondary memory, and attention control. 
Memory Lang. Publons users have indicated that they sit on Language and Cognitive Processes' editorial board but we are unable to verify these claims. The more we study the language used by humans, the more we will understand the structure of the mind. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2006.11.004, Baddeley, A. D. (2012). RG drafted the manuscript. We therefore calculated Cohens d standardized mean difference scores to better represent the extent of group differences on the cognitive measures in the three models. 
Comparative fit indexes in structural models. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Coding agreement between the initial coding and re-analyzed coding of correct switch trials was 100%. The measures comprising our latent variables were designed to reflect important facets of the cognitive processes underlying memory capacity, and our formal language measures were well-designed assessments of lexical and sentential comprehension and production. Testing the generalized slowing hypothesis in specific language impairment. London: PearsonAssessment. Item transcription and scoring reliability were at or above 0.95. Our overall model fit statistics suggest that measures of the lexical and grammatical language abilities and the cognitive processes related to memory capacity and language abilities constitute separate factors that covary to similar degrees in children with and without DLD, controlling for age, sex, and SES. Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Acta Psychol. Complex working memory (cWM), representing the simultaneous cognitive processing and retention of information, plays an important role in language development because children must hold in mind representations words and sentences as they are trying to figure out what someone else is saying. doi: 10.1093/oso/9780198842286.003.0003, DAgostino, R. (1998). Role of working memory storage and attention focus switching in childrens comprehension of spoken object relative sentences. Name
J. Natl. Object knowledge, event knowledge, and language knowledge all reside in associative networks in LTM (Federmeier and Kutas, 1999; Lewis and Vasishth, 2005; Lewis et al., 2006; Woltz and Was, 2006; Chow et al., 2014). Working Memory and Language. The Atomic Components of Thought. Preliminary t-tests revealed that the TD group earned significantly higher scores than the DLD group on all the language and cognitive processing measures at the p < 0.001 level with the exception of one measure, Sust Attn, which yielded a p < 0.05. The theoretically motivated components in our conceptual model of memory-related cognitive processes were fluid reasoning, CATT, WM, and language knowledge in LTM. Test of Language Development-Primary, 4th Edn. Ten questions about terminology for children with unexplained language problems. However, one advantage of this study over the Leonard et al. The role of semantic abstractness and perceptual category in processing speech accompanied by gestures. Psychometrika 34, 183202. Statist. 12:724356. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724356. 42, 12751278. PMC legacy view It is a journal which emphasises the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to the study of language. Since language is tightly linked to the mind, it would be more natural to assume that language is a part of the mind than to think it is an entity which exits outside the mind. They did that because they wanted to assess the dimensional nature of cognitive processes that relate to language performance across the full range of language ability. In the second step, we examined whether our measurement model was the most appropriate conceptualization for our data. 42, 12491260. The fit statistics for Model 2 (AIC = 22030.21; 2(84) = 184.59, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.072; CFI = 0.944; TLI = 0.931; SRMR = 0.041) were poorer than those for Model 1 as demonstrated by larger AIC and RMSEA values and a statistically significant 2 difference test, 2(4) = 37.39, p < 0.0001. Children supplied the missing portion of a pattern of pictures or figures by moving cards into an easel.
Hear Res. 31, 141165. Genes, cognition, and communication: insights from neurodevelopmental disorders. 41, 913926. 35, 35343542. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. 52, 1530. Dev. (2012). Can they be measured? Limitations in working memory: implications for language development. * Required, Email(will not be published) Since 2 test statistics tend to be too liberal in samples as large as ours, we also examined the AIC, RMSEA, the CFI, the TLI, and the SRMR. The overarching goals of this study were to investigate the dimensionality of cognitive processes and language ability, to determine whether the dimensions were invariant across children with and without DLD, and to assess potential group differences in the magnitude of the relationships between measures of cognitive processing and language ability. Group differences on the four lexical and sentential language measures were very large. J. Serv. Evolution, brain, and the nature of language, The importance of open access publishing in the field of Linguistics for spreading scholarly knowledge and preserving languages diversity in the era of the economic financial crisis. Table 2.
The Gordon Diagnostic System: Instructional Manual and Interpretive Guide, 3rd Edn. Res. The five-factor measurement model containing the latent variables of fluid reasoning (FLDR), controlled attention (CATT), working memory (WM), long-term memory language knowledge (LTM-LK) and language. Supramodal neural processing of abstract information conveyed by speech and gesture, Reinforcement and inference in cross-situational word learning. Age 17 language and reading outcomes in late-talking toddlers: support for a dimensional perspective on language delay. J. After reporting the new count of high tones and low tones, children pressed the space bar for the next tone. The DLD group was 57% male compared to the TD group, which was 63% male. J. doi: 10.1044/jslhr.4104.913. J. Exp. Anderson, J. R., and Lebiere, C. J. Hear Res. Participants completed five non-linguistic speed of processing tasks, four linguistic speed of processing tasks, four verbal working memory (WM) tasks, and one non-verbal WM task. Int. (2012). The TD group was 72% white (non-Hispanic), 12% Hispanic, 0% African-American, 9% more than one race, 4% Asian, and 3% American Indian/Native Hawaiian. Neural mechanisms of interference control underlie the relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory span. (2013) show that finger counting helps cognitive robots to learn words.
New York, NY: Psychology Press. Why does the human brain show hemispheric (i.e., left or right) dominance for some specific linguistic and cognitive processes? doi: 10.1044/2018_JSLHR-L-17-0421, Montgomery, J., Gillam, R., Evans, J., and Sergeev, A. The SJR is a size-independent prestige indicator that ranks journals by their 'average prestige per article'. According to the cutoffs suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999), Model 1 had an acceptable fit (AIC = 21973.86; RMSEA = 0.06; CFI = 0.963; TLI = 0.951; SRMR = 0.036). Res. Psychol. 10, 447454. 59, 127. Working memory capacity and language processing in children with specific language impairment. Leonard et al. Berwick R. C., Friederici A. D., Chomsky N., Bolhuis J. J. The relation between receptive grammar and procedural, declarative, and working memory in specific language impairment. Speech Lang. Internal consistency reliability, as reported in the test manual, was 0.89. The relation between fluid intelligence and memory capacity may reflect the toggling of attention between the stimulus items and the processes of associatively binding items together (Shipstead et al., 2014, 2016). doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093722. Our five-factor model consisted of four cognitive factors (Fluid Reasoning, CATT, Working Memory, and LTM-LK) and a language factor. Edited and reviewed by: Nuno Sousa, University of Minho, Portugal. Psychol. Phonological memory deficits in language disordered children: is there a causal connection? When comparing models derived from large samples, the best model is usually considered to be the one with the smallest chi-square value. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2001/034), Montgomery, J. Second, there are measures other than the ones we selected that could represent our five factors. Disord. 17, 22652281. The dependent variable was total raw score. External citations are calculated by subtracting the number of self-citations from the total number of citations received by the journals documents. doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2010.07.003, Dollaghan, C., and Campbell, T. (1998). Universities and research institutions in United Kingdom. Special thanks to Alexander Sergeev, who conducted the propensity matching. Cognit. A structural regression model indicated that the relationship between working memory and language ability was significantly greater for the TD group than the DLD group. Conti-Ramsden et al. Vicario and Rumiati (2013) demonstrate how notions of left and right affect processing of trading verbs. These results indicate that a model incorporating fluid intelligence, CATT, WM, and LTM-LK is a good characterization of cognitive abilities that are related to language measures in school-age children, whether they are DLD or TD.
(2014). 52, 915929. Previous research on cognition and language has mainly focused on the independent roles of CATT, phonological short-term memory (pSTM) storage, complex working memory (cWM) involving concurrent storage and processing, and processing speed. J. Cogn. Diff. Children completed a sustained auditory attention measure adapted from the auditory vigilance subtest of the Gordon Diagnostics System (Gordon et al., 1997). The fact that language and memory are both key components of remembering, understanding, and retelling stories was evidenced by high correlations between our WM, LTM-LK, and Language latent variables. J. Psychol. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/9152.001.0001, Leonard, L. B., Deevy, P., Fey, M., and Bredin-Oja, S. (2013). (2008). doi: 10.1093/biomet/70.1.41, Ross, B., Hillyard, S. A., and Picton, T. W. (2010). The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the For continuity and consistency, we use the term DLD when discussing previous research on children with language impairments regardless of whether the original paper referred to them as SLI or DLD. The current study took a psychometric approach to modeling a set of cognitive processing constructs that could conceivably influence childrens language performance. Perry and Lupyan (2013) explain that language and thought are different but strongly interacting abilities, based on the online manipulation of linguistic activity. It has been employed in clinical research to approximate the conditions of a randomized experiment by creating control and experimental groups that are balanced on a variety of variables (Rosenbaum and Rubin, 1983; DAgostino, 1998). Number dissimilarities facilitate the comprehension of relative clauses in children with (Grammatical) specific language impairment. Working memory was assessed with the listening recall (remembering the last word in sentences after judging their accuracy), counting recall (counting dots in various arrays and then recalling the total number of dots in each array), and backward digits recall (repeating digits in reverse order) subtests from the Working Memory Test Battery for Children (WMTB-C; Pickering and Gathercole, 2001). These tasks require the child to remember specific details of a story that is told to them and then to use their long-term knowledge of narrative structure and sentence structure to retell the story. Psychol. Toward a self-organizing pre-symbolic neural model representing sensorimotor primitives. Importantly, our findings extend those of Leonard et al. Before Res. Commun. Results of recent sentence comprehension studies provide evidence of just such a relationship among WM, LTM, and language (Montgomery et al., 2018). Test of Narrative Language. Commun. Evidence shows a moderate to strong relationship between fluid reasoning and WM in adults (Fukuda et al., 2010; Burgess et al., 2011) and children (de Abreu et al., 2010). This indicator counts the number of citations received by documents from a journal and divides them by the total number of documents published in that journal. Nagels A., Chatterjee A., Kircher T., Straube B. New York, NY: Gordon Systems Inc. Hu, L., and Bentler, P. (1999). Language & Cognitive Processes doi: 10.1044/jslhr.4205.1275, Tomblin, J. Psychol. Woodcock-Johnson III Test of Cognitive Abilities. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing. 51, 1634. However, this finding should be considered tentative, since it is a post hoc test, and would not hold up in the presence of a multiple correction procedure such as a Bonferroni correction. 
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The primary dependent variable was percent trials count. Nagels et al. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118, Jreskog, K. G. (1969). The evolution of a cognitive psychologist: a journey from simple behaviors to complex mental acts. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). (2007) yielded very good model fit statistics for their DLD and TD groups combined. Structural model evaluation and modification. Lang Cognit Process. (2013) study a self-organizing pre-symbolic neural model representing sensorimotor information. The first issue relates to the importance of a variety of cognitive processes related to memory capacity, defined broadly. FOXP2 gene and language development: the molecular substrate of the gestural-origin theory of speech? Hear Res. 41, 469495. (1999). Embodied comprehension of stories: interactions between language regions and modality specific neural systems. Res. The need for study spanning the brain and the mind has given birth to a new discipline, such as cognitive neuroscience, neurolinguistics, biolinguistics, etc. This approach, which diminished the influence of outlier scores in a single language domain, yielded a sample of children who represented the full spectrum of impairment from mild to severe. Neurosci. A few children (14.5%) exhibited expressive-only disorders, and just 1% exhibited receptive-only disorders.
Speech Lang. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.08.031, Marton, K., and Schwartz, R. G. (2003). We first specified a conceptual model of cognitive processes that mapped hypothesized memory constructs onto latent variables (sets of observed measures) that had the potential to be theoretically relevant to lexical and grammatical comprehension and production. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19981015)17:19<2265::AID-SIM918>3.0.CO;2-B, de Abreu, P. M. E., Conway, A. R., and Gathercole, S. E. (2010). 60, 26032618. The repeated patterns subtest of the Leiter-R (Roid and Miller, 1997) represented the third measure of focal attention.
doi: 10.1044/jslhr.4006.1245. Res. Psychol. (2007) study demonstrated that cognitive processing abilities related to verbal WM contributed to overall language scores on an omnibus measures of language comprehension and production to a much greater extent than cognitive processing abilities related to speed of processing and non-verbal WM. because our model was also a good characterization of the interrelationships among cognitive processes and language measures in the two groups separately.